Organizing Information in Written Reports

Contributed by Deane Gradous, Twin Cities consultant

By using appropriate headings in their reports, writers are more likely to address their readers’ needs for information. Organizing information under headings (Table 1) makes writing tasks easier and reports more complete.

Table 1. Headings for four types of reports

Work plan

Final report*

Title–Be descriptive (consistent with a previous proposal, if any). Purpose–State the purpose of the work in one or two clear sentences. Background–Take the rational from the original proposal and add background as the reader needs. Objectives–List the questions to be answered, the avenues to be explored, the work to be completed, or the results to be achieved. Methods–Describe how the objectives will be achieved. Materials–Estimate material to be used or consumed for the work. Timeline–Include milestones and, where appropriate, future plans. Appendix–Attach copies of correspondence and other documents important to the reader of the work plan.

Title–Be descriptive (consistent with the proposal and plan). Purpose–State the purpose of the work in one or two clear sentences (consistent with the plan, or note changes). Background–Tell the story behind the work. (The writer may choose to place this section after conclusions and recommendations.) Objectives–List the questions answered, the avenues explored, the work completed, or the results achieved. Objectives must be consistent with the plan (any differences are explained). Objectives may be included in a Purpose and objectives section. Conclusions and recommendations–Include new learning and advice to decision makers. Summary–Write this section last. It functions as an executive summary of all the information in the report. Methods–Describe how the work was achieved. If different from plan, include rationale for changes. Results and discussion–Include important results data and graphic illustrations. Point out the information you want the reader to note. Discuss the implications. In this section, demonstrate your thinking. References–Identify relevant documents, including background information. Appendix–Include long tables of data and other documentation to support the achievement. * Contains all the information needed to back up the results or to make decisions

Meeting report

Trip report

Group name, date, and time of meeting Distribution list–Include team members’ names typed in bold. Add asterisks by the names of attendees. Add the names of FYI recipients in plain type. Follow up and action plans–Create a 3-column table listing action items. The first item is a reminder to all to attend the next meeting. Later items in column one describe action items completed since the last meeting, then the action items that were assigned during the meeting. Column two lists the persons responsible for the action items. Column three lists dates of completion or expected completion. Agenda–List topics discussed during the meeting. Discussions, decisions and assignments–List projects or topics in the same order as on the agenda and include the following: 1. Project status to date (background) 2. Decisions and rationale 3. Recommendations 4. Significant barriers Next meeting–List tentative agenda items for the next meeting.

Who went where, project #, and date of trip People contacted–Include names, titles, and phone numbers. This documentation is important for later reference and easily done when all the information is at hand. Purpose–State the purpose in one or two sentences. If two projects and two purposes, the writer may want to file two separate trip reports. Outcomes/benefits–Describe the expected and unexpected outcomes. Objectives–List questions answered or avenues explored. Objectives may be included in the Purpose section. Conclusions and recommendations –Include major findings and advice to decision makers. Background–Tell the story behind the trip. This section functions as the rationale for the trip. Results and discussion–Report the important events and activities of the trip and your thinking about what transpired. Summary–This section must be written last but may be inserted early in the report. It functions as an executive summary of all the information in the report. Attachments–Include any materials or documents the hosts and visitors presented to one another.

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Guidelines for Formatting Articles, Reports, and Papers

Contributed by Deane Gradous, Twin Cities consultant

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This is a title:
The subtitle qualifies it

The title is large type, centered, and may be all caps or sentence style as above. The introduction to the paper requires no heading because it comes first. The statement of purpose comes early in the introduction and is often followed by a list of the specific objectives the writer expects to achieve in dealing with the topic. In the following sentences or paragraphs, the writer provides background information to help the reader understand the context, definitions, assumptions, history, and so on.

The writer may close the introduction with his or her plan for organizing the main points of the paper that follows. Papers that are ten or more pages long require a title page, a table of contents, and an executive summary.

This is a major heading

Major headings are typed flush left, sans-serif if possible (that is, use of characters that have no curled or enlarged “tails”; the font of characters in this document has these “tails” and so is serif in nature), boldface, and four points larger than the paragraph type that follows. They signal the start of large sections of content. Long papers require three levels of headings. Short papers require only two levels of headings.

This is a minor heading

Minor headings are typed flush left, sans serif, boldface, italic, and two points larger than the paragraph type that follows. Headings function as signposts for the reader, who should be able to see the shape of the paper simply by skimming the title and the headings. All headings at a single level must be grammatically parallel. Breaking out long
lists of items that are buried in paragraph text also helps the reader. Lists are indented on the first tab and aligned 0.15″ behind bullets or numbers. Note the following formatting details for the paper:

· One and one-half inch margins all around the page
· Ragged right margins
· Single spacing
· 12-point Times ( This short sample was written in 12-point Times and may show up as such to the reader, depending on settings in their Web browser.)
· No end punctuation for items in a list (unless they are complete sentences)

This is a paragraph heading
.
Paragraph headings use normal paragraph type and boldface. They end in periods, which are not boldfaced. Paragraph
headings are clearly and logically related to the minor heading that precedes them. The paragraphs in this model are block style and have 6 points of added space above, which eliminates the need to double-space between them.

This paragraph is indented behind the first tab. Indent either a long quotation or a long example. Long quotations are referenced (author, year, page number).

Number pages at center or right.

Adapted from: Flower, L. (1981). Problem-solving strategies for writing. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

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Guidelines for Creating Overhead transparencies

Contributed by Deane Gradous, Twin Cities consultant

Unless one is a gifted orator, the belief that spoken words are the meat-and-potatoes of a presentation is mistaken. The presenter who wants the audience to grasp the meaning of her message, must strive to create readable, interesting, informative transparencies (slides). In times past, words were the primary means for transmitting abstract concepts. Today’s audiences, however, are visual learners. They live and work with eyes focused on television, computer monitors, videos, photos, films, advertising graphics, and so on.

Visual images tend to dominate over words: The presenter who seeks to influence others’ actions or decisions will plan to accommodate the human preference for visual information. According to research, learners should be telling us: “I hear it, I forget it.” “I see it, I take it in.” “I see it, hear it, and do it; it’s mine.” In summary, will you tell people? Sure.
Will you show them? Certainly. Will you ask them to interact with you, one another, and the content of your presentation? Absolutely. Using all three methods – auditory, visual, and kinesthetic — enhances your ability to influence audiences.

Design hints

Type face = Times or Arial Point size = 20+ Case = Sentence type Location = Top 2/3 of slide Page set up = Landscape Ideas = One per slide Lines = Six per slide Words = Six per line Color? = Yes, if available Contrast = More important than color Graphics? = Absolutely Clip art? = If appropriate and additive

Production hints

• Let PowerPoint ease your way to designing effective slides. If you already know Microsoft Word, learning PowerPoint will be a snap. Focus your efforts on formatting, organizing, and managing information and on gaining proficiency with the superb drawing tools in PowerPoint.
• Produce a paper copy of each slide; stand up; throw the copy on the floor; and critically review it from the audience’s perspective.
• Print slides on laser transparency film. Use a color printer if one is available.
• Insert the slides in special sleeves that frame the slide (3M makes them).
• Produce black and white or color handouts to facilitate note taking and review–two slides per page.
• Create presenter notes pages in PowerPoint. To enable you to easily read your notes from their position on a lectern or a table top, use 16- to 18-point type.

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Designing the Page for Readability:
Macropunctuation for Memos and Reports

Contributed by Deane Gradous, Twin Cities Consultant

Make your writing visually appealing, well organized, and simple to take in and remember. Even though you write for a captive reader, do not assume that he or she will be fascinated with what you have to say.

Use headings and subheadings

Help speed recognition of what the page contains. Use headings to communicate a sense of order and conciseness. Make your communication look planned, coherent, and forthright. Order is important. Start with a statement of your purpose for writing. Add the when, who, how, and where details that you have organized into some rational order. Say what you think about the above, and end with a summary. Put endless tables of data in an appendix.

Don’t tax your reader’s power to take in information

Straight text looks formidable.

The reader braces himself or herself for an ordeal–for heavy going. Because we humans have relatively limited capacities for information processing, you should present your information in bite-sized chunks, which your reader may then quickly note and take in. Keep paragraphs short–seven lines of type at the most.

The shorter, the more irresistible your paragraphs are.

Put key ideas in indented paragraphs where they will be noticed. Just as you noticed this paragraph.

Look for opportunities to use numbered or bulleted lists. Numbers designate order or hierarchy. If your word-processing program does not create bullets, you can create them by filling in lower-case o’s with a felt pen. Remember to make all the items in your lists grammatically parallel and to add no punctuation because the list is its own punctuation.

Use white space as a foil

White space is not random nothingness. It is a tool; use it! White space is functional when it works to lift your ideas off the page and into your reader’s mind. Be concerned with the use of margins and the consistency of spacing between lines and paragraphs. A 60-character line or less will help your reader track correctly through your text. And keep white space white (clean). Eliminate visual nuisances such as fancy borders or prominent logos.

Use a style sheet

For consistency, design template files with your preferred page layouts for letters, reports, and memos. Save these settings in separate files and lock them. Some word processors have a styles feature to facilitate paragraph formatting. Style sheets save you time because you make the small but important decisions involved in formatting your written communications just once. Style sheets also help you create a consistent, professional image.

Add visual appeal

Add personality and drama to your correspondence by incorporating hand-written notations, graphic illustrations, and charts. Graphics attract. Use graphics to break up the page and to lead the reader’s eye right to where you want it — perhaps to the second and third pages of a long memo.

Checklists, sidebars, summaries, tables, graphs, hand-written notations, and cartoons will add to the visual appeal of the page. (Exception: Place series of tables and graphs in an appendix.)

Use restraint

Sparingly employ italics, boldface, underlining, upper-case type, asterisks, and changes of font or type size. Too much variety creates an impression of complexity or messiness. Eliminate noise, such as unnecessary periods at the end of items in a list and parentheses after the numbers in a list.

Highlight important text

To draw attention to important material, place a border around a short passage. See your word-processing manual for how to add 5-points of space around the type.

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Techniques for Getting Started Writing

Contributed by Deane Gradous, Twin Cities consultant

· Set a timer for 510 minutes, and write for the entire time. Aim to write anything that is even slightly related to your topic. It’s OK to set down your thoughts and feelings about approaching this writing task.

· Ask a colleague to listen while you talk about your writing project and the ideas you plan to convey to your reader. Then go to your computer and start writing.

· Take a handful of 3″ x 5″ index cards and write your ideas on them, one per card. Arrange and rearrange your cards in an order that makes sense. Add ideas as they occur to you. Then tape the cards to a large sheet of paper and fill in the details around each idea. Very often, the ideas on the cards become headings or topic sentences for paragraphs.

· Begin to write anywhere in the middle of the piece. Start with the most interesting [to you!] part. Your enthusiasm may carry you into completing your writing project. Write the beginning of the piece last or whenever you are ready to do so.

· Put your reader in an empty chair and talk to your reader as if he or she were sitting across the desk from you. What is your reader most interested in learning from what you are writing? After your conversation, start writing.

· Listen to baroque music. Mentally explore your topic. Reread your notes. Relax, and let your subconscious take over for a few minutes. Expect an A Ha! Write quickly.

· Go for a walk and consider what you want to say to the reader. Return to your computer, and start writing.

· Create a Mind Map. Write your way around it.

· ?

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Email Writing and Reading

Email Writing
Email Netiquette
Email Management
Email Policies

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Email Writing

• How to Write a Compelling E-Mail Subject Line
• Watch Your E-mail Tone
• A Beginner’s Guide to Effective Email
• Study: Employees Spend Half Their Time on E-Mail
• 10 Commandments of Writing E-mail
• 7 Tips for Email Subject Lines
• Good Email Subject Lines
• How to Increase Trust in Email

Email Netiquette

Professionalism, Ethics And Courtesy On The Net
How Can I Block Offensive Email?
Netiquette
Netiquette Home Page — A Service of Albion.com
Using and Understanding the Internet: Netiquette
Netiquette Home Page — A Service of Albion.com
Netiquette (Part1)
Netiquette (Part 2)

Email Management

Basic Email Management
What is Email Management?
A List of Realistic Email Strategies
7 Ways to Detoxify Your Inbox

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Stress Management
Time Management

Email Policies

Internet Email Usage Policy
Email Policy — Sample
Email Policy sample
You Have to Have an Email Policy

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Comparison Between E-mail and Voice Mail

Contributed by Deane Gradous, Twin Cities consultant

Chart of comparisons

E-mail	Voice mail
For less urgent messages* Appears to request attention.	For more urgent messages* Appears to demand attention.
The reader may read the message many times to be sure he or she understands it. Vanilla layout gives few clues about differences in importance. The language alone, must convey relative importance or urgency.	The listener generally tries to understand and remember the message the first time through but may rewind the tape and repeat it as many times as necessary. Tone of voice and language yield clues about relative importance or urgency.
Written, may be read quickly or slowly, as the receiver desires	Oral, must be listened to at the speed it was delivered
May be stored on disk for future reference. Easy to access specific stored messages.	May be stored on tape for future reference. Hard to locate specific stored messages.
Provides a record of message sent and message received, which reassures the sender and saves the reader an acknowledgment step.	Provides a short-term record of the message. Many voice-mail systems provide no record for the sender that the message has been received.
The receiver accesses the message at his or her convenience, perhaps long after the usefulness of the message has passed.	The flashing signal that indicates a voice-mail message is waiting is potentially irritating to the receiver, especially if he or she is feeling pressured by other events.
The writer organizes and edits the message for the reader on screen. If the message contains typos and other errors, the writer may appear careless, inconsiderate, or illiterate.	The speaker is responsible for organizing the message. If the message contains pauses, repetitions, or backtracking, the speaker may sound inarticulate or poorly organized.
Preferred by visual learners	Preferred by auditory learners

* Nona Mason, Director, MBC program, University of St.Thomas, personal communication, February 1995.

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Brief Annotated Bibliography for the Business Writer

Contributed by Deane Gradous, Twin Cities consultant

American Heritage Dictionary

(2nd Ed.). (1982). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

A dictionary is essential, even in the days of word processing programs with spell-check features. Besides listing words and word forms not included in most computer dictionaries, the American Heritage Dictionary provides
usage notes for words that are frequently misused, such as affect-effect, which-that, and than-then.

Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1979). Elements of Style (3rd Ed.). New York: MacMillan.

Seventy years after its first publication in 1919, The Elements of Style is still a favorite resource for writers who sympathize with the needs of their readers. Readers should keep in mind that Strunk and White used sexist language and many examples in which women are not treated as equals. William Zinsler, an authority on writing as
well, suggests that at least once each year we read this slim volume and remember the authors’ wise counsel.

Lanham, R. A. (1987). Revising business prose. (3rd Ed.). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

This slim book is based on the premise that serious business writers can learn to eliminate “shopping bag” sentences and “officialease” from their writing. If the fog index of your writing rises into the stratosphere, this book is for you. Revising Business Prose is a resource for the difficult problems of editing, shortening, and rewriting text that may be beyond the comfort zone of your readers.

Bates, J. D. (199). Writing with precision. (3rd Ed.). Washington, DC: Acropolis Books.

The subtitle of this book, “How to write so that you cannot possibly be misunderstood,” is a goal worth striving for even though it is impossible to achieve. Sloppy, imprecise written communications have incurred untold millions of dollars of unneeded business expense and the subsequent loss of profits. Read Writing with Precision to learn how to edit your own and others’ business writing with precision.

Flower, L. (1989). Problem-solving strategies for writing. (3rd Ed.). San Diego: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.

Linda Flower offers steps and strategies to the serious student of business writing–of any writing for that matter. She discusses the process of writing, including defining your purpose, organizing your information, and cueing your reader.

Rico, G. L. (1983). Writing the natural way. Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher (Houghton Mifflin).

Do you seek a method for accessing all that you know about a topic before you write? The expression “creative writer of business correspondence” is not an oxymoron. Writing anything is a creative act. Even our now-routine
letters represent some once-creative efforts. Business writers who read this book will enjoy taking advantage of the vast capabilities of their brains.

Brusaw, C.T., Alred, G.J., & Oliu, W. E. (1987). Handbook of technical writing. (3rd Ed.). New York: St. Martin’s Press.

If you write reports, instructions, and specifications, your job will be made easier by referring to models supplied by the authors.

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