All About Marketing

• Guidelines for developing, marketing and evaluating nonprofit programs are
  included in the book Field Guide to Nonprofit Program Design, Marketing and Evaluation . The vast
  majority of the guidelines apply to for-profit marketing as well.

Sections of This Topic Include

Basics and Planning

Basics — and Misunderstanding — About Marketing (below
on this page)
Market Planning

Inbound Marketing

Marketing
Research
Competitive
Analysis
Pricing
Positioning
(including writing your positioning statement)
Naming
and Branding

Outbound Marketing

Advertising
and Promotions
Public
and Media Relations
Sales
Customer
Service
Customer
Satisfaction
Social
Networking

Protecting Ownership of Your Products/Services

Intellectual
Property

Evaluating Your Marketing Efforts

Evaluating Your Marketing
and Advertising Activities

Marketing On Telephone and/or Online

Telemarketing
Email Marketing
Social
Networking
Online
Reputation Management

General Resources

Additional Perspectives on the Basics of Marketing
Additional Information
for Nonprofits
General Resources About Marketing

Also consider
Related Library Topics

Learn More in the Library’s Blogs Related to Marketing

In addition to the articles on this current page, also see the following blogs
that have posts related to Marketing. Scan down the blog’s page to see various
posts. Also see the section “Recent Blog Posts” in the sidebar of
the blog or click on “next” near the bottom of a post in the blog.
The blog also links to numerous free related resources.

Library’s
Marketing Blog
Library’s
Public and Media Relations Blog

---

Basics — and Misunderstandings — About Marketing

© Copyright Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD

What is Marketing?

Before you learn more about marketing in the many links later on below topic,
you should first understand what marketing is, because the topic is so often
misunderstood. Marketing is the wide range of activities involved in making
sure that you’re continuing to meet the needs of your customers and are getting
appropriate value in return.

How Marketing is So Misunderstood

Far too often, organizations try to develop a product to meet customers’
needs without ever really verifying what the customers wanted in the first place.
Instead, those organizations make a strenuous effort to “sell” the
product through rigorous, ongoing advertising, promotions and publicity — through
“outbound” marketing. These organizations may have built a beautiful
ladder – but it may be entirely on the wrong roof! Far too often, that
lesson comes from painful experience.

Experienced organizations have learned that it is not their opinion that matters
most regarding whether their product is needed or not. The opinion that matters
most is that of the customers. These organizations have learned that they might
not know what they don’t know about their customers. That precious knowledge
about the customers comes from “inbound” marketing — through market
research to clarify customers’ needs and what they are willing to do to get
those needs met. If the inbound marketing is done well, the outbound marketing
is particularly easy — and effective.

Inbound Marketing Includes Market Research to Find Out:

1. What specific groups of potential customers/clients (markets) might have
   which specific needs (nonprofits often already have a very clear community
   need in mind when starting out with a new program — however, the emerging
   practice of nonprofit business development, or earned income development,
   often starts by researching a broad group of clients to identify new opportunities
   for programs)
2. How those needs might be met for each group (or target market), which suggests
   how a product might be designed to meet the need (nonprofits might think in
   terms of outcomes, or changes, to accomplish among the groups of clients in
   order to meet the needs)
3. How each of the target markets might choose to access the product, etc.
   (its “packaging”)
4. How much the customers/clients might be willing pay and how (pricing analysis)
5. Who the competitors are (competitor analysis)
6. How to design and describe the product such that customers/clients will
   buy from the organization, rather than from its competitors (its unique value
   proposition)
7. How the product should be identified — its personality — to be most identifiable
   (its naming and branding)

Outbound Marketing Includes:

1. Advertising and promotions (focused on the product)
2. Sales
3. Public and media relations (focused on the entire organization)
4. Customer service
5. Customer satisfaction

(Return to Table of Contents above)

Additional Perspectives on the Basics of Marketing

What’s
“Advertising, Marketing, Promotion, Public Relations and Publicity, and
Sales?”
Makin’
the Marketing Strategy Happen!
Numerous free
online resources
Top
6 Marketing Consultants Share Their Secrets
Get
Everyone on Your Marketing Team — 3 Steps
10 Marketing Musts
Marketing Basics for the Small Business
Small Business Marketing Strategy
Rules
of Marketing: Old vs. New
10 Things
They Don’t Teach You About Marketing in College
How
to Create a Powerful Marketing Message
What Are Some Marketing Mistakes That Companies Make?
Survey
of Marketing Executives’ Priorities
Marketing Can Do Better
Marketing’s
the Engine of a Growing Company
Four
Strategies for Marketing a Grand Opening
Reasons
Not to Combine Fundraising and Marketing Committees

General Resources About Marketing

Good Marketing
Ideas: a collection of marketing ideas and articles aimed at a variety of marketing
forms and business types. Includes offline and internet marketing as well as
non-profit marketing ideas.
Marketing Resource
Center
List
of useful articles
Industry Standard
Marketing Plan Do-It-Yourself Step by Step
Marketing Internet Library

20
Powerful Marketing Tips
Best
Practices and Marketing Case Studies
Question Marketing

---

For the Category of Marketing:

To round out your knowledge of this Library topic, you may
want to review some related topics, available from the link below.
Each of the related topics includes free, online resources.

Also, scan the Recommended Books listed below. They have been
selected for their relevance and highly practical nature.

Related Library Topics

Recommended Books

All About Business Proposals: Guidelines and Extensive Resources

© Copyright Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD, Authenticity Consulting, LLC.

Sections of This Topic Include

Preparation

What is a Business Proposal?
Should I Just Use a Business Proposal Template?
Guidelines About Style of Writing to Use

First Learn About Prospect’s Organization

You Can Learn a Lot Just From Their Documentation
Meet With the Prospect Before Submitting Proposal?

Write Your Business Proposal

Draft Each Section of Your Proposal
Review Your Drafted Proposal

Submit Your Proposal

Submit Your Proposal
Follow Up to Your Proposal

Samples and Templates

Business Proposal Samples
Business Proposal Templates

Also consider
Related Library Topics

---

PREPARATION

What is a Business Proposal?

Definition of a Business Proposal

A business proposal is a documented, formal offer to provide a product and/or
service to a potential buyer (a prospect). The proposal can be in response to
a formal Request
for Proposal (RFP) which is a solicitation issued by the prospect that is
seeking bids from providers. The business proposal documents the provider’s
bid.

It typically includes brief description of the prospect’s problem, why you
can solve it better than anyone else, your general approach to solving it and
the approximate cost to solve it. It also includes brief description of your
organization and the people who will be working on the problem.

To get more of an impression of what a business proposal is, it would help
to look at some samples of business proposal samples.
However, do not start selecting a preferred sample to use now until you have
reviewed the guidelines in the rest of this Library topic.

Business Proposals and Business Plans Are Not the Same

In contrast to a business proposal, a business plan “is a formal written
document containing business goals, the methods on how these goals can be attained,
and the time frame within which these goals need to be achieved. It also describes
the nature of the business, background information on the organization, the
organization’s financial projections, and the strategies it intends to implement
to achieve the stated targets. In its entirety, this document serves as a road
map that provides direction to the business.” (Wikipedia).
Also see
All About Business Planning

Other Names for Business Proposals

There are various different terms used to refer to a business proposal, depending
on any conventions used by those requesting and/or offering the proposal. For
example, a business proposal is sometimes referred to as a “bid”,
which, in this context, is an offer of a product or service for a price. When
proposals are written by sales personnel, they often refer to them as sales
proposals. Another phrase used for a business proposal is a contract proposal.
If a proposal is in response to an RFP, then notice the terms used in the RFP.

Should I Just Use a Business Proposal Template?

The more your proposal is customized to the prospect’s needs, and to the culture
and style of their organization, the more likely that your proposal will win
a project with them. Standardized templates are not as likely to match the unique
features of your prospect as would your own customized proposal.

Also, if your prospect regularly issues RFP’s, then it is likely they have
already seen many of the standardized templates, including the one that you
had used for your own proposal. They might expect something more original and
customized from you.

However, if you still are committed to using a template, then you still will
benefit a great deal from reading the rest of the guidelines in the Library’s
topic. If you prefer to review some samples of business proposals now, then
this article provides several, as well as critiques each.
10 Best
Proposal Examples [With Critical Critiques]

Here is a link to numerous other samples, as well.
Business Proposal Samples

Guidelines About Style of Writing to Use

General Guidelines

Unless your prospect requires you to complete an online form when writing and
submitting your proposal,, you can tailor your proposal as much as you would
like. Consider these guidelines:

• Your proposal will appear more credible if it is written on your organization’s
  stationery, including its logo and coloring.
• Standard business writing often uses Times Roman font, 12-point sizing and
  1-inch margins. In addition, consider the guidelines in Business
  Writing Tips for Professionals.
• Number all of the pages and mark them as “confidential”.
• If you received an RFP, then write in the same style and format as the RFP.
  If you had met with the prospect before writing the proposal, then write in
  the style of the conversation that you had.
• Avoid the use of jargon — words or acronyms specific to your industry,
  product or service. Otherwise, define them before you use them.
• Avoid the use of humor. While it can invite a relaxed and casual atmosphere
  in communications, there are too many risks that it would be misunderstood
  or offensive.
• In the case of an RFP, express your gratitude for the prospect’s providing
  the RFP to you.
• Despite the importance of your proposal, you should still format it so that
  it can be skimmed. Use short paragraphs with titles. Do not repeat sentences
  or other information. Use graphics and tables to quickly depict numerical
  information.
• If you submit your proposal online, be sure your prospect could read it
  on a small tablet or smart phone, that is, that your proposal can be shrunk
  to that size.
• Unless you’re convinced that the prospect will not have many proposals to
  review, you should limit your proposal to the number of pages that the prospect
  could grasp in 5-6 minutes.
• Write confidently, but avoid exaggerations. Too much of that will hurt your
  credibility.

Polish Your Writing Skills?

As far as your prospect is concerned, the quality of your writing shows the
quality of your products and services. So, if you do not have complete confidence
in your writing skills, then you would benefit from reviewing guidelines in
the following topics. After you have drafted your proposal, you should have
it reviewed by at least one person will strong skills in proof reading documents.
Vocabulary
| Spelling
| Grammar
| Writing
for Readability | Reviewing
Your Writing

---

FIRST LEARN ABOUT PROSPECT’S ORGANIZATION

You Can Learn a Lot Just From Their Documentation

You can learn a great deal about your prospect’s organization, even without
having met the prospect in person. That learning can help you to match your
proposal and other communications to the culture and style of their organization.
That, in turn, can make your proposal even more persuasive and credible to your
prospect.

For example, look at the prospect’s website, annual report, sales literature
and the Request for Proposal. Some things to look for are:

• Completeness – Have they produced the typical documents
  that you would expect for their particular stage in organizational development?
  If so, then they probably value completeness and accuracy.
• Currency – How up-to-date is the documentation? If
  it’s up-to-date, then they probably value timeliness.
• Scope – Does the documentation include the typical
  contents of that particular type of document? If so, then they probably have
  good knowledge of standard management documents — and so should you.
• Depth – How in-depth is the content of the document?
  If it is in-depth, then they probably value thoroughness.
• Alignment – For example, does the content between
  the documents seem consistent and complementary? If so, then they probably
  are fairly clear in their thinking and management.
• Authorship – Who has developed the various documents?
  If it is appropriate authors, for example, the CEO is not doing the Board’s
  documents, then they probably value having clear roles.

So what have you learned about:

• How their culture values completeness, timeliness, understanding and accuracy,
  thoroughness, clear thinking and management?
• How might you customize your proposal and other communications to match
  their culture and style?

Meet With Your Prospect Before Submitting Proposal?

If your prospect regularly issues RFPs, then it is not likely that they are
willing to meet with the bidder’s to their RFPs. Instead, they opt to write
very specific RFPs and rely on those to help them to reliably select the best
providers.

Otherwise, it can be extremely useful to first meet with your prospect. The
sections below suggest what questions to ask in the meeting. In that meeting,
don’t forget to use strong people skills including the following:
Interviewing
| Listening
| Non-Verbal
Communications | Questioning
| Building
Trust

Learn More About the Prospect’s Problem

In the meeting, useful questions to ask include:

• Why do they want to address the situation now?
• What did they see or hear that brought them to that conclusion?
• What will happen if nothing is done?
• What has been the effect of the problem on the rest of the organization?
• What have they done so far about the situation?
• What happened as a result of their efforts so far?
• How did they conclude that they needed a consultant now?
• Respectfully and tactfully ask, what might be their role in causing the
  problem?
• What do they consider to be success
  now? What would the situation look and feel like after the problem has been
  solved?
• What is the budget for doing the project?
• What is the timing, especially any deadlines for completion?

Learn More About the Prospect’s Organization

For example, ask:

• How do you like to make decisions and solve problems?
• What is unique about the culture of your organization?
• How can a consultant best work in that culture?
• How do you prefer to communicate? In-person? In writing?
• What is your approach to situations, for example, do you refer to “problems”
  or “opportunities”?
• Do you talk most about the “business” side of the organization
  or the “people” side?
• What do you know about change management? How would you like to learn?
• What is the personality of your meetings?

For more guidelines for this meeting with your prospect, see
How
to Do the First Meeting With Your Client

---

WRITE YOUR BUSINESS PROPOSAL

Draft Each Section of Your Proposal

There is no standard format for a business proposal. If the prospect issued
an RFP, then notice if it suggests a certain format that you are to follow.
The following sections are typical across the different types of formats. When
writing each section, don’t forget the above Guidelines About
Style of Writing to Use.

Cover Letter

This should be a one-page letter with your company letterhead (logo and coloring).
It is not part of the proposal itself, but accompanies it. Be sure that the
cover letter:

• Is addressed directly to the contact information that you were told to submit
  the proposal to. An RFP would specify that contact information.
• Thanks them for the opportunity to submit a proposal.
• Asserts your confidence that your organization can very effectively meet
  their needs in a timely manner.
• Avoids duplicating information that is already in the proposal.
• References the attached proposal by the exact title and date.
• Includes your direct contact information.
• Includes your original signature (not a copy).

Be reluctant to set a deadline for them to get back to you because that raises
the risk that it won’t match their timelines.

Cover Page

The phrases “cover page” and “title page” (below) are sometimes
used interchangeably because their contents are so similar. Because of duplication
with contents of the title page, it may not be necessary to include a cover
page in your proposal unless an RFP specifies to include it.

Some proposal writers prefer to have a cover sheet that encapsulates the proposal.
It includes the title of the proposal and perhaps the organization’s logo and
color scheme. If a cover sheet is included, then there also is a back cover
at the end of the proposal, and it duplicates info from the cover sheet.
Example
of Cover Sheets

Title Page

As mentioned above, the phrases “cover page” and “title page”
are sometimes used interchangeably because their contents are so similar. The
title page typically includes:

• Title of the proposal
• Date of the completed proposal
• Title of the author
• Brief description of the purpose of the proposal (4-5 sentences)
• Direct contact information of the key contact in the prospect’s organization
• Direct contact information of the person in your organization who is knowledgeable
  about the proposal

Examples of Cover Pages

Table of Contents

A table of contents is very useful if your proposal will be more than four
pages long. Along with associating page numbers with topics, the listing of
the topics themselves can be used to quickly convey the nature and organization
of the content in the proposal.

It is very handy if the titles can be active Web links, so the reader can conveniently
click on a title and immediately be transferred to that section in the proposal.

Executive Summary

Because the Executive Summary is a summary of the highlights of the proposal,
it is usually best to write the Summary after having written the other sections
in the proposal. Highlights to be sure to include are clear, concise and persuasive
descriptions of:

• Your excitement and confidence in submitting your proposal
• The prospect’s problem, including its adverse impacts on their organization
• Your proposed solution, and how it particularly suits the nature and needs
  of your prospect’s organization
• Listing of the key benefits of your solution in their organization, including
  reference to relevant research and results regarding your solution
• Your proposed methodology toward the solution, and how it is relevant, realistic
  and flexible to their needs
• Your unique value proposition — how your company is the
  prospect’s best choice among your competitors

How to Write an
Executive Summary for Your Proposal
How
to Write a Business Proposal Executive Summary
How
to Write an Executive Summary for Your Proposal

Introduction

Some RFPs specify an introduction that briefly describes your organization,
including its mission, strategic priorities, history, successes and why it is
an excellent choice for your prospect’s situation.

This section might not be needed if you plan to include more information, for
example, about your products and services and any personnel who will be involved
in the work with the prospect. In that case, you might instead include a section
later on, such as “Company Overview” (later on below).

Statement of the Problem

Here is where you show that you completely understand the current need that
your prospect has, whether they refer to it as a “problem”, “priority”
or “goal”.

In this section, focus on what you can provide. The next section explains
how you can provide it. Don’t forget to consider any learning that
you got from previously reviewing the prospect’s documentation, as well as if
you had met with the prospect in person, as explained above. In this section,
include brief descriptions of at least the following:

• The prospect’s need in terms of the problem or the significant goal to be
  addressed
• What the adverse effects will likely be if the prospect’s problem is not
  solved
• How your product or service will meet that need
• What overall success will look like after the need was met
• Individual outcomes, or benefits, to the organization that together will
  comprise that success

In the case of an RFP, your descriptions should closely match — but without
exactly copying — the wording that your prospect wrote in the RFP. Your tone
should convey a sense of urgency to meet the need, and yet strong confidence
in what you can provide.

It can be very powerful to include a testimonial or two now from a previous
client in whose organization you were successful in solving a problem similar
to the prospect’s.
How
to Write a Problem Statement for Business
How to Write
a Problem Statement

Methodology (Outcomes, Deliverables and Timelines)

List Outcomes and Methodologies to Achieve Each

Here is where you specify how you will achieve the what that
you had specified in the above information about the problem. The “how”
is best explained in terms of action plans that are associated with each outcome
that you itemized in the above Statement of the Problem. For each outcome, specify:

• Tangible deliverables, for example, documented assessment plans, status
  reports, presentations and post-assessment reports.
• Who will produce and provide each deliverable.
• To whom it will be provided and by when (timetables).

The following article can be very useful when developing and associating action
plans with individual outcomes or goals:
Guidelines
and Resources for Action Planning Phase of Consulting

Organize Methods Into Various Project Phases?

This information is most concisely and clearly depicted in the form of a table.
For complex or long projects, it might be most understandable if you organize
the outcomes and associated methodologies into various phases, for example:

• Phase 1 – Diagnostic and Pre-Assessment
• Phase 2 – Implementation
• Phase 3 – Post-Assessment and Follow-Up

Be Careful About Finalizing Methodologies

It might be that, if your prospect hires you, then further exploration (or
discovery) into the problem
might reveal that what the prospect thought was the problem was actually just
its symptoms.

Thus, there might be a different problem and methodology required than what
was originally described in your proposal. So be sure to specify that your proposed
methodology is in accordance with the current problem reported by the prospect.

Pricing and Payment Terms

Use Detailed or Overall Pricing?

There are different viewpoints about how to derive the pricing in business
proposals. Some experts advise not including detailed pricing, for example,
per-hour pricing. They suggest that your pricing should be based on the overall
value of the outcomes that your products and services will achieve for the prospect.

Others advise that detailed, for example, per-hour pricing, is the most understandable
and, thus, the most credible way to present that information to prospects.

If you have an RFP, be sure to reference how the prospect wants the pricing
information to be described. These articles provide very useful guidelines to
selecting which approach to use.
Consulting Fees and
Rates: How Much Should I Charge?
How to Determine
Consulting Fees
Guide to
Value-Based Pricing for Consultants: 10 Experts Share Their Fee Strategies

Payment Terms

In this section, specify your proposed payment schedule, including:

• When you will invoice the client
• Which prices are to be paid and when, including any initial and final payment
  amounts
• How prices are to be paid, for example, in US dollars
• Interest and penalties for late payments

Mention any additional payment options, for example, early payments or lump-sum
payments. Mention that your proposed schedule can be adjusted to suit any standard
payment terms used by your prospect.

Terms and Conditions

The decision now is to decide what should be included here in the business
proposal compared to what should be specified later on in a contract if your
prospect selects your proposal. Be sure to reference an RFP if available to
discern what should be included in your proposal. It might require that you
specify terms regarding:

• Proposed roles and responsibilities of the prospect’s and your organizations
• Terms of confidentiality
• Ownership of intellectual property
• Licensing and bonding

Different experts would assert that certain information should always be included
in a business proposal and others would assert that the contract is the most
appropriate place to specify terms other than payment terms.
Core Elements to
Include in a Consulting Contract
How
to Do Consulting Proposals and Contracts
Protect
Your Business with Proposal Terms & Conditions

Company Overview

Here is where you impress the prospect with the appropriateness and credibility
of your company’s expertise and resources. Include:

• Mission of your organization
• Legal structure
• Key personnel and resumes
• Professional code of ethics
• Key awards, presentations and publications
• Testimonials relevant to the prospect’s problem
• Case studies that more fully depict similar projects, including their problem,
  methods and solutions

Signature Pages

Here is where you include the original signature of those who composed the
proposal. Be sure to sign in blue ink, which more readily indicates that the
signatures were not merely copies of original signatures.

Similar to the Terms and Conditions section, if your proposal is including
terms and conditions that typically would be in a contract, then specify the:

• Positions
• Dates
• Agreement that is assumed by the signature, for example “By signing
  this document, you agree to the terms and conditions specified herein”

Appendices

In this section, include information and materials that further explain the
information in the body of the proposal, for example:

• Resumes
• Graphics and charts
• Testimonials

In order to accommodate the likely tight schedules of prospects who will be
reviewing numerous proposals, title the Appendices as “Supplemental Information
and Materials” to indicate that it is optional for the prospect to read.

Review Your Drafted Proposal

Have someone else review your proposal, ideally someone who is somewhat familiar
with your product or service. Have them follow this checklist:

• If you are following an RFP, does your proposal exactly match the requirements
  specified in the RFP?
• Are there any spelling and grammatical mistakes? Avoid common
  mistakes in vocabulary and grammar, for example, use of “affect”
  for “effect”.
• Check apostrophes and quotation marks to be sure they are used correctly.
• Do your numbers total correctly, for example, in your pricing?
• Do the deliverables seem reasonable? Are the timelines reasonable with each
  deliverable?
• Read the document aloud to someone, and ask them to interrupt where the
  document does not make sense or seems repetitive.
• Focus especially on condensing the wording. Avoid
  These Filler Words in Your Writing.

---

SUBMIT YOUR BUSINESS PROPOSAL

Submit Your Proposal

Electronic Submission

If your prospect prefers that you submit your proposal electronically, then
attempt to include a read receipt, that is, verification that the proposal was
indeed received by the prospect. Also, print out any response from the electronic
system that indicates that your proposal was received.

If you are concerned about the electronic submission changing any of your formatting
or preferred writing style, then you might also email your proposal. However,
if the prospect is likely to receive many proposals, then they are very likely
to screen out any proposals that do not closely match the requirements specified
in the RFP.

Make Changes to Your Submitted Proposal?

If you prefer to make any changes to a proposal that was already submitted,
then be sure to change the date of the proposal, especially on the title page.
Be sure to notice if an RFP specifies any deadlines for changes to submitted
proposals.

Similarly, if your prospect suggests changes to the proposal, then be sure
to change the date of the proposal. If you expect several changes, then it might
be useful to include a Revision Page in the proposal that specifies the dates
and nature of each change.

Follow Up to Your Proposal

Contact Prospect About Your Submitted Proposal?

If an RFP specifies dates in which the proposals would be reviewed and a candidate
selected, then be reluctant to contact the prospect beforehand. If you do, then
do it only once, so as to not irritate those processing the proposals, especially
if the prospect is likely to be reviewing numerous proposals.

Preparation for Interviews by Your Prospect

If your prospect selects you for a follow-up interview, then you should carefully
prepare. Guidelines to consider for the interview include:

• Study the RFP one more time to be sure you understand the prospect’s problem.
• Review your proposal one more time to be sure you can concisely answer any
  questions they might pose about its contents.
• If you had not met with the client before, then during the interview, consider
  posing the questions listed above in the section Meet With
  the Prospect? It can be very impressive to the prospect that you had thought
  of such useful questions.

These articles in the Library will also be useful:
How to
Interview for a Job
P
is for Poise and Persuasion
Tips
On Presenting A Proposal

---

SAMPLES AND TEMPLATES

Business Proposal Samples

PandaDoc
Sample
Business Proposal
Venngage
Business
Proposal Sample
Free
Business Proposal Samples

Business Proposal Templates

Proposal Templates
Free Business
Template
Business Proposal Form
Free
Business Proposal Template
Free Proposal Templates

---

Learn More in the Library’s Blogs Related to Marketing

In addition to the articles on this current page, also see the following blogs
that have posts related to Marketing. Scan down the blog’s page to see various
posts. Also see the section “Recent Blog Posts” in the sidebar of
the blog or click on “next” near the bottom of a post in the blog.
The blog also links to numerous free related resources.

Library’s
Marketing Blog
Library’s
Public and Media Relations Blog

---

For the Category of Marketing:

To round out your knowledge of this Library topic, you may
want to review some related topics, available from the link below.
Each of the related topics includes free, online resources.

Also, scan the Recommended Books listed below. They have been
selected for their relevance and highly practical nature.

Related Library Topics

Recommended Books

Management Function of Coordinating / Controlling: Overview of Basic Methods

© Copyright Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD, Authenticity Consulting, LLC.
Adapted from the Field Guide to Leadership and Supervision in Business
and Field Guide to Leadership and Supervision for Nonprofit Staff.

Basically, organizational coordination and control is taking a systematic approach to figuring out if you’re doing what you wanted to be doing or not. It’s the part of planning after you’ve decided what you wanted to be doing. Below are some of the major approaches to organizational control and coordination.

Sections of This Topic Include

• Introduction – “Controlling” Getting a Bad Rap?
• Administrative Controls
• Delegation
• Evaluations
• Financial Management
• Performance Management
• Policies and Procedures
• Quality Control and Operations Management
• Risk, Safety and Liabilities
• Additional Perspectives on the Management Function of Coordinating

Also consider
Related Library Topics

Learn More in the Library’s Blogs Related to the Management Function of Controlling

In addition to the articles on this current page, see the following blogs which have posts related to the Management Function of Controlling. Scan down the blog’s page to see various posts. Also see the section “Recent Blog Posts” in the sidebar of the blog or click on “next” near the bottom of a post in the blog.

• Library’s Leadership Blog
• Library’s Supervision Blog

---

Introduction: “Control” Getting a Bad Rap?

Many People Are Averse to Management “Control”

New, more “organic” forms or organizations (self-organizing organizations, self-managed teams, network organizations, etc.) allow organizations to be more responsive and adaptable in today’s rapidly changing world. These forms also cultivate empowerment among employees, much more than the hierarchical, rigidly structured organizations of the past.

Many people assert that as the nature of organizations has changed, so must the nature of management control. Some people go so far as to claim that management shouldn’t exercise any form of control whatsoever. They claim that management should exist to support employee’s efforts to be fully productive members of organizations and communities — therefore, any form of control is completely counterproductive to management and employees.

Some people even react strongly against the phrase “management control”. The word itself can have a negative connotation, e.g., it can sound dominating, coercive and heavy-handed. It seems that writers of management literature now prefer use of the term “coordinating” rather than “controlling”.

“Coordination” Must Exist or There’s No Organization — Only an “Experience”

Regardless of the negative connotation of the word “control”, it must exist or there is no organization at all. In its most basic form, an organization is two or more people working together to reach a goal. Whether an organization is highly bureaucratic or changing and self-organizing, the organization must exist for some reason, some purpose, some mission (implicit or explicit) — or it isn’t an organization at all. The organization must have some goal. Identifying this goal requires some form of planning, informal or formal. Reaching the goal means identifying some strategies, formal or informal. These strategies are agreed upon by members of the organization through some form of communication, formal or informal. Then members set about to act in accordance with what they agreed to do. They may change their minds, fine. But they need to recognize and acknowledge that they’re changing their minds.

This form of ongoing communication to reach a goal, tracking activities toward the goal and then subsequent decisions about what to do is the essence of management coordination. It needs to exist in some manner — formal or informal.

The following are rather typical methods of coordination in organizations. They are used as means to communicate direction and guide behaviors in that direction. The function of the following methods is not to “control”, but rather to guide. If, from ongoing communications among management and employees, the direction changes, then fine. The following methods are changed accordingly.

Note that many of the following methods are so common that we often don’t think of them as having anything to do with coordination at all. No matter what one calls the following methods — coordination or control — they’re important to the success of any organization.

Various Administrative Controls

Organizations often use standardized documents to ensure complete and consistent information is gathered. Documents include titles and dates to detect different versions of the document. Computers have revolutionized administrative controls through use of integrated management information systems, project management software, human resource information systems, office automation software, etc. Organizations typically require a wide range of reports, e.g., financial reports, status reports, project reports, etc. to monitor what’s being done, by when and how.

Delegation

Delegation is an approach to get things done, in conjunction with other employees. Delegation is often viewed as a major means of influence and therefore is categorized as an activity in leading (rather than controlling/coordinating). Delegation generally includes assigning responsibility to an employee to complete a task, granting the employee sufficient authority to gain the resources to do the task and letting the employee decide how that task will be carried out. Typically, the person assigning the task shares accountability with the employee for ensuring the task is completed. See Delegation.

Evaluations

Evaluation is carefully collecting and analyzing information in order to make decisions. There are many types of evaluations in organizations, for example, evaluation of marketing efforts, evaluation of employee performance, program evaluations, etc. Evaluations can focus on many aspects of an organization and its processes, for example, its goals, processes, outcomes, etc. See
Evaluations (many kinds)

Financial Statements (particularly budget management)

Once the organization has establish goals and associated strategies (or ways to reach the goals), funds are set aside for the resources and labor to the accomplish goals and tasks. As the money is spent, statements are changed to reflect what was spent, how it was spent and what it obtained. Review of financial statements is one of the more common methods to monitor the progress of programs and plans. The most common financial statements include the balance sheet, income statement and cash flow statement. Financial audits are regularly conducted to ensure that financial management practices follow generally accepted standards, as well. See For-Profit Financial Management and Nonprofit Financial Management.

Performance Management (particularly observation and feedback phases)

Performance management focuses on the performance of the total organization, including its processes, critical subsystems (departments, programs, projects, etc.) and employees. Most of us have some basic impression of employee performance management, including the role of performance reviews. Performance reviews provide an opportunity for supervisors and their employees to regularly communicate about goals, how well those goals should be met, how well the goals are being met and what must be done to continue to meet (or change) those goals. The employee is rewarded in some form for meeting performance standards, or embarks on a development plan with the supervisor in order to improve performance. See Basic Overview of Performance Management.

Policies and Procedures (to guide behaviors in the workplace)

Policies help ensure that behaviors in the workplace conform to federal and state laws, and also to expectations of the organization. Often, policies are applied to specified situations in the form of procedures. Personnel policies and procedures help ensure that employee laws are followed (e.g., laws such as the Americans with Disabilities Act, Occupational Health and Safety Act, etc.) and minimize the likelihood of costly litigation. A procedure is a step-by-step list of activities required to conduct a certain
task. Procedures ensure that routine tasks are carried out in an effective and efficient fashion. See Personnel Policies.

Quality Control and Operations Management

The concept of quality control has received a great deal of attention over the past twenty years. Many people recognize phrases such as “do it right the first time, “zero defects”, “Total Quality Management”, etc. Very broadly, quality includes specifying a performance standard (often by benchmarking, or comparing to a well-accepted standard), monitoring and measuring results, comparing the results to the standard and then making adjusts as necessary. Recently, the concept of quality management has expanded to include organization-wide programs, such as Total Quality Management, ISO9000, Balanced Scorecard, etc. Operations management includes the overall activities involved in developing, producing and distributing products and services. See Quality Management and Operations Management.

Risk, Safety and Liabilities

For a variety of reasons (including the increasing number of lawsuits), organizations are focusing a great deal of attention to activities that minimize risk, avoid liabilities and ensure safety of employees. Several decades ago, it was rare to hear of an organization undertaking contingency planning, disaster recovery planning or critical incident analysis. Now those activities are becoming commonplace. See

• Crisis Management
• Employee Wellness Programs (diversity management, safety, ergonomics, etc.)
• Insurance
• Risk Management

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Additional Perspectives on the Management Function of Coordinating

• Impact of Organization Culture on Internal Controls
• Coordination as a Management Function
• Definition of Coordination – Management Study Guide

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• Related Library Topics
• Recommended Books

Historical and Contemporary Theories of Management

© Copyright Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD, Authenticity Consulting, LLC.

Sections of This Topic Include

Historical Theories of Management
Contemporary Theories of Management
Additional Sources of Management Theory

Also see
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Historical Theories of Management

Scientific Management Theory

(1890-1940)
At the turn of the century, the most notable organizations were large and industrialized.
Often they included ongoing, routine tasks that manufactured a variety of products.
The United States highly prized scientific and technical matters, including
careful measurement and specification of activities and results. Management
tended to be the same. Frederick Taylor developed the :scientific management
theory” which espoused this careful specification and measurement of all
organizational tasks. Tasks were standardized as much as possible. Workers were
rewarded and punished. This approach appeared to work well for organizations
with assembly lines and other mechanistic, routinized activities.

Bureaucratic Management Theory

(1930-1950)
Max Weber embellished the scientific management theory with his bureaucratic
theory. Weber focused on dividing organizations into hierarchies, establishing
strong lines of authority and control. He suggested organizations develop comprehensive
and detailed standard operating procedures for all routinized tasks.

Human Relations Movement

(1930-today)
Eventually, unions and government regulations reacted to the rather dehumanizing
effects of these theories. More attention was given to individuals and their
unique capabilities in the organization. A major belief included that the organization
would prosper if its workers prospered as well. Human Resource departments were
added to organizations. The behavioral sciences played a strong role in helping
to understand the needs of workers and how the needs of the organization and
its workers could be better aligned. Various new theories were spawned, many
based on the behavioral sciences (some had name like theory “X”, “Y”
and “Z”).

Traits of Progressive Management Development Programs

With the Human Relations movement, training programs recognized the need to
cultivate supervisory skills, e.g., delegating, career development, motivating,
coaching, mentoring, etc. Progressive management schools now have students review
a wide body of management topics and learn those topics by applying that knowledge
in the workplace and reflecting on that application. Learning activities incorporate
learners’ real-world activities in the workplaces or their lives. Assignment
include reflection and analysis on real-world experience. Learning is enhanced
through continuing dialogue and feedback among learners. Very good schools manage
to include forms of self-development, too, recognizing that the basis for effective
management is effective self-management.

Effective management development programs help students (learners) take a system’s
view of their organizations, including review of how major functions effect
each other. Assignments include recognizing and addressing effects of one actions
on their entire organization.

Contemporary Theories of Management

Contingency Theory

Basically, contingency theory asserts that when managers make
a decision, they must take into account all aspects of the current
situation and act on those aspects that are key to the situation
at hand. Basically, it’s the approach that “it depends.”
For example, the continuing effort to identify the best leadership
or management style might now conclude that the best style depends
on the situation. If one is leading troops in the Persian Gulf,
an autocratic style is probably best (of course, many might argue
here, too). If one is leading a hospital or university, a more
participative and facilitative leadership style is probably best.

Systems Theory

Systems theory has had a significant effect on management science
and understanding organizations. First, let’s look at “what
is a system?” A system is a collection of part unified to
accomplish an overall goal. If one part of the system is removed,
the nature of the system is changed as well. For example, a pile
of sand is not a system. If one removes a sand particle, you’ve
still got a pile of sand. However, a functioning car is a system.
Remove the carburetor and you’ve no longer got a working
car. A system can be looked at as having inputs, processes, outputs
and outcomes. Systems share feedback among each of these four
aspects of the systems.

Let’s look at an organization. Inputs would include resources
such as raw materials, money, technologies and people. These inputs
go through a process where they’re planned, organized, motivated
and controlled, ultimately to meet the organization’s goals.
Outputs would be products or services to a market. Outcomes would
be, e.g., enhanced quality of life or productivity for customers/clients,
productivity. Feedback would be information from human resources
carrying out the process, customers/clients using the products,
etc. Feedback also comes from the larger environment of the organization,
e.g., influences from government, society, economics, and technologies.
This overall system framework applies to any system, including
subsystems (departments, programs, etc.) in the overall organization.

Systems theory may seem quite basic. Yet, decades of management
training and practices in the workplace have not followed this
theory. Only recently, with tremendous changes facing organizations
and how they operate, have educators and managers come to face
this new way of looking at things. This interpretation has brought
about a significant change (or paradigm shift) in the way management
studies and approaches organizations.

The effect of systems theory in management is that writers, educators, consultants,
etc. are helping managers to look at the organization from a broader perspective.
Systems theory has brought a new perspective for managers to interpret patterns
and events in the workplace. They recognize the various parts of the organization,
and, in particular, the interrelations of the parts, e.g., the coordination
of central administration with its programs, engineering with manufacturing,
supervisors with workers, etc. This is a major development. In the past, managers
typically took one part and focused on that. Then they moved all attention to
another part. The problem was that an organization could, e.g., have a wonderful
central administration and wonderful set of teachers, but the departments didn’t
synchronize at all. See the category Systems
Thinking

Chaos Theory

As chaotic and random as world events seem today, they seem as chaotic in
organizations, too. Yet for decades, managers have acted on the basis that organizational
events can always be controlled. A new theory (or some say “science”),
chaos theory, recognizes that events indeed are rarely controlled. Many chaos
theorists (as do systems theorists) refer to biological systems when explaining
their theory. They suggest that systems naturally go to more complexity, and
as they do so, these systems become more volatile (or susceptible to cataclysmic
events) and must expend more energy to maintain that complexity. As they expend
more energy, they seek more structure to maintain stability. This trend continues
until the system splits, combines with another complex system or falls apart
entirely. Sound familiar? This trend is what many see as the trend in life,
in organizations and the world in general.

Additional Sources of Management Theory

Knowing
What a Manager Does
Freedom-Based
Management

More Links on the History of Management

What
is Scientific Management?
Development
of Management Thought
A
Brief History of Management

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Related Library Topics

Recommended Books

Common Terms, Levels and Roles in Management

© Copyright Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD, Authenticity Consulting, LLC.

Sections of this Topic Include

Common Roles in Management

• Board of Directors
• Executives
• Managers
• Leaders
• Supervisors
• Work Directors

Corresponding Types of Development

• Board Development
• Executive Development
• Management Development
• Managerial Development
• Leadership Development
• Supervisoral Development

Additional Online Reading

Also consider
Related Library Topics

Learn More in the Library’s Blog Related to Terms in Management

In addition to the articles on this current page, see the following blog which
has posts related to Terms in Management. Scan down the blog’s page to see various
posts. Also see the section “Recent Blog Posts” in the sidebar of
the blog or click on “next” near the bottom of a post in the blog.

Library’s Leadership
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Board of Directors (Governance)

(NOTE: Many experts would assert that the focus of a Board in a corporation
is on governance and not on management. They would clarify that the Board determines
the overall purpose and strategic priorities, and the management implements
those.)

A board is a group of people who are legally charged to govern an organization
(usually a corporation) — thus, they are “governing boards.” The
board is responsible for setting strategic direction, establishing broad policies
and objectives, and hiring and evaluating the chief executive officer. The chief
executive officer reports to the board and is responsible for carrying out the
board’s strategic policies. The nature of a board can vary widely in nature.
Some boards act like “policy boards”, that is, they take a strong
policy-making role, and expect the chief executive to operate the organization
according to those policies. Some boards, despite their being legally responsible
for the activities of the corporation, follow all of the directions and guidance
of the chief executive (in this case, board members arguably are not meeting
their responsibilities as a board). Still, other boards take a strong “working
board”, or hands-on role, including micro-managing the chief executive
and organization. For more information, see Boards
of Directors.

What is Management?

Traditional Interpretation

There are a variety of views about this term. Traditionally, the term “management”
refers to the activities (and often the group of people) involved in the four
general functions listed below. (Note that the four functions recur throughout
the organization and are highly integrated):

1) Planning,
including identifying goals, objectives, methods, resources needed to carry
out methods, responsibilities and dates for completion of tasks. Examples of
planning are strategic planning, business planning, project planning, staffing
planning, advertising and promotions planning, etc. (See Planning
(many kinds).)

2) Organizing resources
to achieve the goals in an optimum fashion. Examples are organizing new departments,
human resources, office and file systems, re-organizing businesses, etc. (See
Organizing
(many kinds).)

3) Leading,
including to set direction for the organization, groups and individuals and
also influence people to follow that direction. Examples are establishing strategic
direction (vision, values, mission and / or goals) and championing methods of
organizational performance management to pursue that direction. (See All
About Leadership.)

4) Controlling, or coordinating,
the organization’s systems, processes and structures to reach effectively and
efficiently reach goals and objectives. This includes ongoing collection of
feedback, and monitoring and adjustment of systems, processes and structures
accordingly. Examples include use of financial controls, policies and procedures,
performance management processes, measures to avoid risks etc. (See Coordinating
Activities.)

Another common view is that “management” is getting things done through
others. Yet another view, quite apart from the traditional view, asserts that
the job of management is to support employee’s efforts to be fully productive
members of the organizations and citizens of the community.

To most employees, the term “management” probably means the group
of people (executives and other managers) who are primarily responsible for
making decisions in the organization. In a nonprofit, the term “management”
might refer to all or any of the activities of the board, executive director
and/or program directors.

Read the rest of the overall topic Management
(Introduction) to understand more about management.

Another Interpretation

Some writers, teachers and practitioners assert that the above view is rather
outmoded and that management needs to focus more on leadership skills, e.g.,
establishing vision and goals, communicating the vision and goals, and guiding
others to accomplish them. They also assert that leadership must be more facilitative,
participative and empowering in how visions and goals are established and carried
out. Some people assert that this really isn’t a change in the management functions,
rather it’s re-emphasizing certain aspects of management. For more information,
see New
Paradigm in Management.

Executives

Usually, this term generally applies to those people or specific positions
in top levels of management, e.g., chief executive officers, chief operating
officers, chief financial officers, vice presidents, general managers of large
organizations, etc. In large organizations, executives often have different
forms of compensation or pay, e.g., they receive portions of the company’s stock,
receive executive-level “perks, etc. Chief executives usually pay strong
attention to strategic plans and organizational performance, whether measured
financially or from impact of services to a community. Many people think of
the Chief Executive Officer as heading up large, for-profit corporations. This
is not entirely true. The majority of businesses in the United States are small
businesses, whether for-profit or nonprofit. Their top executives could be called
Chief Executive Officers. For more information, see Chief
Executive Role.

Managers

A classic definition is that “Leaders do the right thing
and managers do things right.” A more standard definition
is usually something like “managers work toward the organization’s
goals using its resources in an effective and efficient manner.”
In a traditional sense, large organizations may have different
levels of managers, including top managers, middle managers and
first-line managers. Top (or executive) managers are responsible
for overseeing the whole organization and typically engage in
more strategic and conceptual matters, with less attention to
day-to-day detail. Top managers have middle managers working for
them and who are in charge of a major function or department.
Middle managers may have first-line managers working
for them and who are responsible to manage the day-to-day activities
of a group of workers.

Note that you can also have different types of managers across the same levels
in the organization. A project manager is in charge of developing a certain
project, e.g., development of a new building. (See Project
Planning.) A functional manager is in charge of a major function,
such as a department in the organization, e.g., marketing, sales, engineering,
finance, etc. (For example, see Program
Planning) A product manager is in charge of a product or service.
Similarly, a product line manager is in charge of a group of closely
related products. (See Product/Service
Management.) General managers are in charge of numerous functions
within an organization or department.

Leaders

Very simply put, a leader is interpreted as someone who sets direction in an
effort and influences people to follow that direction. They set direction by
developing a clear vision and mission, and conducting planning that determines
the goals needed to achieve the vision and mission. They motivate by using a
variety of methods, including facilitation, coaching, mentoring, directing,
delegating, etc. As noted above, one of the four key functions of management
is leading (along with planning, organizing and controlling). Leaders carry
out their roles in a wide variety of styles, e.g., autocratic, democratic, participatory,
laissez-faire (hands off), etc. Often, the leadership style depends on the situation,
including the life cycle, culture and strategic priorities of the organization.
There are many views about what characteristics and traits that leaders should
have. There are also numerous theories about leadership, or about carrying out
the role of leader, e.g., servant leader, democratic leader, principle-centered
leader, group-man theory, great-man theory, traits theory, visionary leader,
total leader, situational leader, etc. See
All About Leadership

“Leading versus Managing”?

(Whatever the title, the person in the top-level position in the organization
is (or at least should be) responsible for setting (or, in the case of corporations,
pursuing) the overall direction for the organization. Consequently (and unfortunately?),
the “executive” level of management is often referred to as the “leadership”
of the organization.)

With recent focus on the need for transformational leadership to guide organizations
through successful change, the term “leadership” has also been used
to refer to those who embrace change and lead the change of organizations for
the betterment of all stakeholders. Some people believe that leadership occurs
only at the top levels of organizations and managing occurs in the levels farther
down the organization. Some people believe that leadership occurs (or should
occur) throughout the organization, but still use the term “leadership”
mostly to refer to the top positions in the organization. Others believe that
managing and leading occur at many levels of the organization. For more information,
see
Is
Leading Different than Managing? (pros and cons of this debate)

(This term is commonly misapplied when people use the term mostly to refer
to the top levels in an organization. The term has — and should have — much
broader usage. Anyone at any level in an organization can show leadership; thus,
almost anyone can be a leader in the organization.)

Supervisors

(This is a widely misunderstood term. Many people believe it
applies only to people who oversee the productivity and development
of entry-level workers. That’s not true.) The term “supervisor”
typically refers to one’s immediate superior in the workplace,
that is, the person whom you report directly to in the organization.
For example, a middle manager’s supervisor typically would
be a top manager. A first-line manager’s supervisor would
be a middle manager. A worker’s supervisor typically would
be a first-line manager.

Supervisors typically are responsible for their direct reports’
progress and productivity in the organization. Supervision often
includes conducting basic management skills (decision making,
problem solving, planning, delegation and meeting management),
organizing teams, noticing the need for and designing new job
roles in the group, hiring new employees, training new employees,
employee performance management (setting goals, observing and
giving feedback, addressing performance issues, firing employees,
etc.) and ensuring conformance to personnel policies and other
internal regulations.

Supervisors typically have strong working knowledge of the activities in their
group, e.g., how to develop their product, carry out their service, etc. Many
also use the term “supervisor” to designate the managerial position
that is responsible for a major function in the organization, for example, Supervisor
of Customer Service. For more information, see Basic
Overview of Supervision.

Supervision is a leadership role especially when leading in the domain of leading
other individuals and groups.

Work Directors

Work directors directly oversee the work of their subordinates. They carry
out their oversight role by specifically assigning work and then closely monitoring
to ensure the work is carried out according to their wishes. Often, people work
their way up through management levels by starting out as work directors. Over
time, they develop skills in delegation, which frees them up from having to
closely monitor the work of their subordinates and, instead, to attend to more
high-level managerial activities. Work directors are not always at lower levels
of the organization. For example, a middle- or upper-level manager who has poorly
developed delegation skills might still be interpreted as work directing her
or his subordinates.

Boards of Directors / Governance Development

Board / Governance development refers to the activities involved
in enhancing skills of the corporation’s board members to effectively
fill their role in governing the corporation. Board development
typically includes helping board members to understand their role
of boards, build skills in recruiting and training board members,
carry out effective board meetings, make policy decisions about
strategic goals and finances, evaluate the board and chief executive
officer, etc. For more information, see Boards
of Directors.

Management Development

Usually, this term refers to the activities involved in enhancing
leaders’, managers’ and supervisor’s abilities to plan, organize,
lead and control the organization and its members. Consequently,
many view the term “management development” to include
executive development (developing executives), leadership development
(developing leaders), managerial development (developing managers)
and supervisoral development (developing supervisors). For more
information, see Management
Development.

As mentioned above, there are people who assert a strong difference
between “leading” and “managing”. These people
often refer to leadership development (developing skills in leadership)
as apart from management (and managerial) development (developing
skills in planning, organizing and controlling). See Leading
Versus Managing (pros and cons of the debate).

Executive Development

(Today’s organizations are changing dramatically. Successful
change requires strong leadership from top positions in the organizations.
Therefore, writers often interchange use of the phrases “leadership
development” with “executive development”. They
are not the same. As noted above, this is handy, but it can cause
substantial confusion.)

Executive development refers to the activities involved in
enhancing one’s ability to carry out top-level roles in the organization.
Some key skills for executives to have include understanding the
external environment of the organization, leadership, strategic
planning, financial forecasting and analysis, organizing, program
planning and human resource management, etc. For more information,
see Chief
Executive Role.

Managerial Development

This term is not frequently used. When it is, it is usually meant in the same
regard as management development.

Supervisoral Development

Supervisoral development refers to the activities involved
in enhancing one’s ability to oversee, guide and evaluate activities
of immediate subordinates in the organization. Supervisor development
often includes learning basic skills in employee performance management,
managing meetings, project management, etc. Good supervisory development
should also include developing skills in time and stress management
— the role of supervisor is often quite stressful to those who
are first getting used to the hectic activities of management.
For more information, see Supervisoral
Development.

Leadership Development

Leadership development refers to the activities involved in
enhancing one’s ability to establish vision and goals, and motivate
and guide others to achieve the vision and goals. Leadership development
is critical at almost any level in the organization —
not just the executive level. For more information, see Leadership
Development.

Additional Online Readings

Guidelines to Carefully Examine Literature (and Avoid Confusion)
About Leadership

Guidelines
to Understanding Literature About Leadership

Definitions Management, Managing …

What is Management? Definitions
Management Definitions by Great Management Scholars
Management Dictionary, Glossary and Terms directory

Leading Versus Managing

Leadership Theories
Management Styles
Fundamental
Difference Between Leading and Managing
Leader
or Manager? These 10 Important Distinctions Can Help You Out

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For the Category of Management:

To round out your knowledge of this Library topic, you may want to review some related topics, available from the link below. Each of the related topics includes free, online resources.

Also, scan the Recommended Books listed below. They have been selected for their relevance and highly practical nature.

Related Library Topics

Recommended Books