In an earlier life, I taught business ethics. (Most of my undergraduate college credits are in philosophy.) So here’s a very concise overview of the major “school”s of ethics that are often taught in business ethics programs.
Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative (1700s)
Kant asserted that a belief is an ethical principle if, and only if, it applies with everyone all the time everywhere, that is, if the principle should be a universal law. Thus, the Golden Rule might qualify as an ethical principle.
John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism (1800s)
Mill asserted that a belief is an ethical principle if it results in the greatest good for the most people. Thus, some people might belief that an economic strategy to “spread the wealth” is also a highly ethical strategy.
Joseph Fletcher’s Situational Ethics (1900s)
Fletcher also asserted that a moral law depends on the current situation. However, he also asserted a principle should be a moral law only if it contributed to love. Thus, Fletcher’s assertion might have contributed to – or justified – the “free love” movement in the 1960s.
Of course, these descriptions are overly simplistic for the purpose of contrasting the different major “schools” of ethics.
What do you think?
Are there other “schools”?
What beliefs or strategies fall into which school?
———
See the topic Business Ethics in the Free Management Library.
I’d like to share with you why, from my perspective, the Combined Federal Campaign (CFC) is the most donor friendly means for a Federal public servant to contribute to the charities they care about. Most of us play multiple roles, and this applies to our charitable donation world as well.
In a CFC campaign, each Federal employee gets a pledge card with space for five charities on it, and many designate more than one charity. Most of the donations are by designation, and the vast majorities are made through payroll deduction. CFC campaigns are conducted each fall; payroll deductions begin in January; and at the end of the year, the Federal employee’s year-end payroll statement lists how much he or she has donated to charity.
The Federal public servant donor, with one pledge card and one transaction:
● Can donate to multiple charities with just one pledge.
● Gives money to the non-profit before it ever hits their checkbook.
● Accrues no interest charges from credit card donations.
● Feels secure—their personal information is never on the Web, and government payroll
systems are secure.
● May remain anonymous if they wish. Anonymous donors are some of a non-profit’s
best supporters, because they already know what the non-profit is doing and do not
want the charity to waste money telling them what they already know.
So those are some of the benefits to Federal donors, for using the CFC as the mechanism to fund their favorite non-profits. What are some of the benefits for non-profits to become one of their revenue generation vehicles? Here’s one:
What’s the True Value of an Unrestricted Dollar? — Three Dollars!
Another fact about CFC funds (and workplace giving in general) is that the funds are unrestricted. When I talk to non-profit leaders, I’ll ask them how much more valuable is an unrestricted dollar than a restricted dollar, and the answer I get most often is “Three times as valuable.”
Using that multiplier, one could make the case that the impact that the CFC gifts generate is more than $800,000,000 million dollars annually; but I think it’s better to stick with the reportable numbers.
As interesting as these numbers are, the question that all non-profits in the CFC want to know is “How much can we generate through the CFC?” and while the honest answer is anywhere from zero to $5.5 million, that’s not usually what they want to hear.
When I ask executive directors who do participate in the CFC, “What’s the biggest benefit they get from being in the CFC?”, the answer I often get is “It keeps our doors open.” For non-profits that have done the work to develop a significant CFC revenue stream, it is reliable and the fact that the monies are unrestricted is a huge benefit.
Campaign Application Periods Coming Up Fast
For non-profits that want to enroll in the CFC, the CFC application periods come up quickly after the end of the calendar year. National and International charities have a January deadline, as do some of the larger regional CFCs. Most of the regional CFC applications are due between February and March. If you’re not sure which regional CFC office is the one that your non-profit would apply to, please send me an e-mail at Bill Huddleston @ Verizon.net and I’ll be glad to help you out.
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
During his 25-year career in the Federal sector, Bill Huddleston, The CFC Coach, served in many CFC roles. If you want to participate in the Combined Federal Campaign, maximize your nonprofit’s CFC revenues, or just ask a few questions, contact …Bill Huddleston
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
Have you seen The Fundraising Series of ebooks ??
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
If you’re reading this on-line and you would like to comment/expand on the above, or would just like to offer your thoughts on the subject of this posting, we encourage you to “Leave a Reply” at the bottom of this page, click on the feedback link at the top of the page, or send an email to the author of this posting. If you’ve received this posting as an email, click on the email link (above) to communicate with the author.
There are about ten things your non-profit must do now in order to have a successful CFC campaign this fall – CFC campaigns run from Sept. 1 to Dec. 15 each year. I don’t have room to cover all ten in this post, but here are three of the most important, with the overarching theme being “Don’t run a stealth campaign”:
• The CFC Logo
Have you ever watched the Little League World Series on TV, played in Japan each year? Even with the signs on the outfield fences in Japanese, you can still recognize which companies are advertising because of their logos. In a similar vein, millions of potential federal donors recognize the Combined Federal Campaign logo, which is restricted to use by charities that are enrolled in the CFC.
The CFC logo is recognized worldwide by federal public servants wherever they are working, and for Federal employees, giving through the CFC is the most donor friendly way for them to give.
The CFC logo is a million dollar benefit provided free to CFC charities, which is another unique feature of workplace giving – the only type of non-profit fundraising that is subsidized, low-risk and high leverage.
If your non-profit is in the CFC, having the CFC logo and your code number on your home page will answer 85% of the questions your potential CFC donors might have. Get your logo in the format you need at: www.opm.gov/cfc/logos.
• Email Signature of all staff and board members
Especially during the solicitation period, the e-mail signatures of all staff and board members should include information about the workplace giving campaigns your non-profit participates in, including the CFC code number. It doesn’t need to be long; some variation of this will work:
The ABC Charity participates in the Combined Federal Campaign
with the CFC code: 00000, please ask your Federal friends to
support us in their agency’s CFC campaign this fall! Thanks very
much for your support in passing the word! To learn more about
our workplace giving campaigns, see www.homepage/CFC.org.
The point is, you don’t know who the recipients of your e-mail messages know, including information about the fact your non-profit participates in the CFC will help get the word out.
• Team Work – What Does it Really Mean?
If I call your organization and ask the question, “Are you in the CFC?” what answer will I get?
A. Yes, we are, and our code number is 12345. Is there any
other way I can help you?
B. I think so, but I’m not the person who handles it, and that
person’s not in yet, can I take a message?
C. What’s the CFC?
Teamwork is hard, communication is hard, and the way to improve in this area is practice and this one of the benefits of workplace giving campaigns – they provide multiple opportunities for staff development for the non-profits that are smart enough to recognize the opportunities presented.
What are the existing connections between your supporters (donors, volunteers, staff, board members) and the Federal community?
Please note that “supporters” are not restricted to “donors.” You may very well have supporters who think well of your organization, but, for whatever reason, are not in a position to be donors at the present.
For you as a non-profit leader, have these actions taken place:
• Have you asked your current supporters to help get the word out
about the fact that the organization that they care about is enrolled
in the CFC? Use your newsletter/email list to do so.
• Does everyone on your staff (including volunteers) know that their
nonprofit is enrolled in the CFC and what your CFC code number is?
• What does the front desk person say about the CFC? And don’t
call in with your own cell phone with caller ID, have a friend call,
ask the front desk person about the CFC, and report back on their
experience.
From the little quiz above, obviously Answer A is the one you want, but if you get one of the other responses, use it as an opportunity to improve the communication and teamwork actions in your non-profit.
As I said, there are ten actions that you must take during the campaign season to have a successful CFC campaign, and these three: CFC Logo and code number on the home page, CFC code number in all e-mail signatures, and using the CFC as a team work opportunity are important ones.
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
During his 25-year career in the Federal sector, Bill Huddleston, The CFC Coach, served in many CFC roles. If you want to participate in the Combined Federal Campaign, maximize your nonprofit’s CFC revenues, or just ask a few questions, contact …Bill Huddleston
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
Have you seen The Fundraising Series of ebooks ??
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
If you’re reading this on-line and you would like to comment/expand on the above, or would just like to offer your thoughts on the subject of this posting, we encourage you to “Leave a Reply” at the bottom of this page, click on the feedback link at the top of the page, or send an email to the author of this posting. If you’ve received this posting as an email, click on the email link (above) to communicate with the author.
It seems that the use of “templates” in on the rise. I’m seeing them mentioned more often lately for strategic planning, Boards, marketing and fundraising We’re getting more calls from potential clients who want us to use a certain template.
Some Advantages of Templates
They very quickly depict a certain approach to doing a seeming complex activity.
They sometimes promise a very quick way of doing a seemingly prolonged activity
They can quickly orient people to a certain way of doing that activity.
Some Potential Disadvantages of Templates
I’m concerned about some of the disadvantages, including that they:
Might minimize the time needed for critically important strategic analysis, thinking and discussions.
Can give the illusion that all planning and plans can be the same, regardless of the different purposes of planning.
Might suggest a “quick fix” to the challenge of allocating sufficient time and resources to good planning.
Indirectly suggest that a nonprofit should have certain structure and certain Board committees.
They don’t orient planners to the different variety of models for planning, i.e., don’t enhance the internal planning capacity of planners.
Some Constrictive Assertions of Some Templates
For example, I’ve seen at least five templates in the past couple of months. Some:
Specify which committees a nonprofit should always have.
Specify the maximum limit of committees for all nonprofits.
Specify certain procedures for solving problems and making decisions.
Specify the time frame that a Strategic Plan should be.
Specify that sufficient planning can be done in a certain number of hours.
Of less concern, they regularly mention the roles of EDs, fundraising and volunteers.
Assert that mission, vision and values must always be looked at first in planning.
Where Templates Can Go Wrong
However, the above specifications and assertions are not always true. They depend completely on the nature and needs of the nonprofit. For example:
The number and types of committees might depend on the number and complexity of strategic priorities.
The way that decisions are made and problems are solved depend on the culture of the organization, e.g., some prefer a highly rational breakdown of the issue, while others prefer a more unfolding, naturalistic, but inclusive approach.
The time frame of a Plan should depend on, e.g., how rapidly the environment is changing around the nonprofit and the range of its resources.
There are occasions where mission, vision and values are not the best to start planning with — if an organization’s programs and clients have not changed, but it has many internal issues, then address those first.
The role of templates has its advantages. But I wish that the authors of templates would do more to caution the users on the purposes, limitations and considerations in using those templates.
Funders often require a grantee to get at least 3 proposals from consultants before the funders will fund a project for the grantee. That approach is meant to help ensure that the grantee selects the best and most cost-effective consultant for the project.
As we know, some grantees already have their favorite consultant, and so they “game” the system, i.e., they keep seeking proposals until they have at least two that don’t match the quality of their favorite consultant’s proposal.
Here’s the conversation that I very recently had, almost word -for-word. I thought it might be amusing to you.
Carter: Authenticity Consulting, may I help you?
Caller: I need a quote for strategic planning.
Carter: Sure, I just have a few quick questions first.
Caller: I just need a quote.
Carter: Well, you’ll get quotes from consultants that are between $500 and $20,000, depending on your situation. I can narrow my quote if I can ask you some questions.
Caller: I really just need a quote.
(Carter’s suspecting she just needs any old quote so her funder gets the required 3 quotes.)
Carter: Have you used a facilitator before?
Caller: Yes, and she worked out quite well.
Carter: Is she giving a quote to you, too, now.
Caller: Yes.
Carter: Does your funder require 3 quotes?
Caller: (laughing) yes, it’s such a pain.
Carter: Then I’m really not interested in giving a quote, just to satisfy your funder.
Caller: Can you just give me a number and we won’t get back to you?
Carter: (smiling to himself, because he’s going to low-ball their favorite facilitator) Sure, $500.
Caller: Thank you! (and she hangs up).
(Carter knows the caller will have to call him back, because she didn’t get a proposal from him.)
A few minutes later, the caller calls him back.
Caller: I guess I need a written proposal from you.
Carter: That would require a lot more information from you.
Caller: Can’t you just send any proposal?
Carter: Sure, but if I make my quote to be $500, that’ll be cheaper than your favorite consultant, and your funder will want to hire me instead.
Caller: (By now she’s getting irate) Then just increase the quote. Look, we really just need one more quote.
Carter: (Playing with her, by now) So what’s in it for me to take the time to do a proposal for a project that I’m not going to get?
Caller: Do you know any other consultants who could give us a quote?
Carter: I wouldn’t do that to any of my colleagues. I’m going to hang up now.
Caller: Goodbye.
Having just finished the enjoying the spectacle that is the Summer Olympics, it’s now time to turn our attention to the CFC solicitation period, which began on September 1 and runs to December 15th.
The CFC is a Mandatory, Voluntary Program — That’s Not A Contradiction
The government requires that CFC campaigns be conducted in every Federal agency/office/location world-wide, but all participation and giving is voluntary.
We’re now in the CFC Solicitation Period. If your nonprofit is in the CFC, and you’ve taken the steps outlined in previous posts, this will be the busiest time of the year for your CFC Action Team.
What Matters – Communication and Teamwork
By now, you should have named your CFC Team Leader, a staff person who is responsible for organizing and getting the word out about your nonprofit’s participation in the CFC.
The biggest mistake made by CFC charities is that some go through the application process to enroll, and then they run a stealth campaign!
7 Tips To Help Ensure A Successful CFC Campaign
: 1. Website: Homepage: Make sure your homepage has the CFC logo with your charity’s
five-digit code number under the logo. This will answer 95% of the questions that
potential Federal donors will have when they come to your website. The logo itself
is a million dollar benefit made available to charities in the CFC, and just like the
Coca-Cola and Nike logos, it is recognized by millions of potential CFC donors.
Website: Workplace Giving Section– In addition to the homepage, in your donor
section, include info about workplace giving, thank people in advance, and ask them
for a payroll deduction pledge. It is also helpful to have examples of how a periodic
pledge will be used by your nonprofit, e.g. “Twenty dollars per pay period will pay for
food for a rescued puppy for a month,” etc.
2. Teamwork Leadership Exercise #1: Make sure every board member, staff member
and volunteer know that you’re in the CFC and what your code number is.
Note: To see how well this has been learned, have someone unknown to the staff call
your organization, and ask, “Are you in the CFC?” The answer from whomever they
reach should be “Yes we are, and this is our CFC code number. May I provide any
other information?”
This is a good test of how well your staff members are acting as part of your CFC team.
3. E-mail signature: Add to your e-mail signature that you participate in the CFC, and
thank any CFC donor in advance for their payroll deduction gift. This should be part
of every staff person’s e-mail signature block, and ask
your board members if they can include it on their e-mails as well.
4. CFC Special Events – Kickoffs and Charity Fairs: Register with your local
CFC office to let them know that you’re interested and able to participate in either
kickoffs or charity fairs. If you have a leader or board member who is a compelling
speaker, let them know that you’re able to provide a keynote speaker as well.
5. Location, Location, Location – If you have one, use it! If your charity is in a
location where there is drive-by or pedestrian traffic, put a sign up in your window,
or along the roadway with your name, the CFC logo, and your CFC 5 digit code. The
American Red Cross hangs a banner off the roof of its headquarters building, proving
that 18th century tools still work.
6. Teamwork Exercise # 2: Ask your constituents (e.g., donors, volunteers, staff, board
members, friends, etc.) if they have any “Federal Connections;” and, if so, ask them
to let those “connections” know that you’re in the CFC, and that their support in the
current CFC campaign would help a lot of people/kids/animals. They could even carry
a couple of your brochures to give to their “connections.”
7. Say Thank You Early & Often! With a CFC campaign you won’t get the names of your
donors released to you until next spring, so at any contact you have, let your potential
Federal donors know that you appreciate their gifts. If you are invited to charity fairs,
make sure to thank the charity fair organizer and the CFC Campaign manager. If you’re
invited to be a keynote speaker, thank the agency head in addition to the CFC volunteers
just mentioned.
These tips, however, can only help if you’re in the CFC campaign. If you’re not, yet, now is the time to begin thinking about applying for next year’s campaign. For a special free guide to help you make that decision, send me (Bill Huddleston) an email with “Guide” in the subject line, and I’ll be glad to send it to you.
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
During his 25-year career in the Federal sector, Bill Huddleston, The CFC Coach, served in many CFC roles. If you want to participate in the Combined Federal Campaign, maximize your nonprofit’s CFC revenues, or just ask a few questions, contact … Bill Huddleston
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= Have you seen The Fundraising Series of ebooks ??
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= If you’re reading this on-line and you would like to comment/expand on the above, or would just like to offer your thoughts on the subject of this posting, we encourage you to “Leave a Reply” at the bottom of this page, click on the feedback link at the top of the page, or send an email to the author of this posting. If you’ve received this posting as an email, click on the email link (above) to communicate with the author.
I have also recently undertaken some “rough and ready” research into the different dynamics that impact the way change is practiced in the East to that of the West. I am looking at the dynamics from three perspectives:
From Western Consultants who have had experience of and have practised Change & Transformation in Asia.
From Asian Consultants who have had exposure to Western style Change & Transformation tools & techniques and who are actively practising in Asia.
An overall consolidated view from both of the above.
Feedback from my Change in Asia Group and many of my LinkedIn 1st Connections enabled me to compile the following 15 key dynamics:
Religion – central to beliefs and ways of doing things in Asia.
Pace of change – slower in Asia.
Reasons for resistance – different reasons in Asia than in the West.
Change awareness – understanding of the need for change is less prevalent in Asia.
Cycles – not as important as in the West.
Families – Asia is heavily focused on the family unit.
Indigenous knowledge – more focused on the output rather than the process in Asia.
Group focus – more focused on groups than individuals in Asia.
Cultural integrity – an understanding of the Asian way of life.
Inter-country obligations –less in Asia than in the West.
Consensus – a need to understand and engage at all levels in Asia.
Regulatory environment – not as strict as in the West.
Education – less creative learning in Asia than in the West.
Hierarchy – bosses in Asia find it harder to let go, to empower their staff.
Responsibility – Asian staff find it difficult to express their opinion until the boss has and then they all agree!
Following agreement of the 15 dynamics I asked respondents to rank their “Top 6” in order of importance and I then assigned scores to the “Top 6” i.e. 6 points for the No1 challenge down to 1 point for the No 6 challenge to ascertain importance.
Whilst the research is not in any way finished yet there are some clear differences to what Western consultants think to that of Asian consultants e.g.
Change Awareness is a clear inhibiting factor as cited by Asian consultants but Western consultants don’t see this aspect as important (I have yet to get under the skin of this).
Also there are some consistencies starting to emerge e.g. Change Awareness and Hierarchy are clear leaders followed by Responsibility, Cultural Integrity, Consensus and Education.
My organization is 2nd in my life only to my family. I also feel responsible for the integrity of the organization and for protecting it from changes that would endanger that integrity. This organization works to create programs that bridge educational gaps between and about indigenous cultures. A lot of what we do is very sensitive and, if mismanaged, could do more harm than good.
The idea of hiring the wrong person for the job of ED when the time comes is terrifying to me. However, the idea of giving up my position on the Board is even MORE terrifying. Having been involved with other organizations that … became oligarchies full of power-struggles and politics [and having] watched those organizations sacrifice the quality and purpose of their programs because the politics became more important or because someone “found a shortcut, cheaper method, etc.,” that placed “efficiency” over quality.
Response:
You sound like any mama protecting its cub, and we would expect no less of someone who cared enough to begin the process/organization in the first place.
The answer to your specific question, right now — where you can maintain the direction and focus of your organization, and still derive compensation from the process — is to help your board become the “mature” group that will assume the governance role and help ensure funding, while you resign your board seat and become the ED (only).
Email:
I agree that someone being the top of the Board AND a paid staff member could create a conflict of interest.
Response:
Not “could.” It is a conflict !!
If you can create a board that will do what’s needed, and continue to support your vision, you can give up your board role and become a paid employee.
It sounds like you’d benefit from conversation with a consultant who specializes in helping NPOs with needs like yours – look around, wherever you’re located, there are likely to be folks with the expertise you need.
Email:
I can see from experience why some people would feel strongly about protecting “their” organization and/or what it was doing. I can … see, from experience with a young organization, how it can require a full-time commitment from key volunteers who may or may not afford to give it full time.
Response:
It is extremely unusual to find “full-time volunteers” especially those whose mindsets duplicate yours. Be careful that, with your passion and protectiveness, you don’t wind up creating the kind of “oligarchy” you despise.
====================
I’d be pleased to address your comments in a future posting.
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
Have a comment or a question about starting, evaluating or expanding your fundraising program? Contact me atHank@Major-Capital-Giving.com With over 30 years of counseling in major gifts, capital campaigns, bequest programs and the planning studies to precede these three, I’ll be pleased to answer your questions.
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
If you’re reading this on-line and you would like to comment/expand on the above, or would just like to offer your thoughts on the subject of this posting, we encourage you to “Leave a Reply” at the bottom of this page, click on the feedback link at the top of the page, or send an email to the author of this posting. If you’ve received this posting as an email, click on the email link (above) to communicate with the author.
CFC Charity Results
In my last post (June 28), I reviewed some of the general CFC statistics, and the results for the 2011 campaign. But, while overall campaign totals may be interesting, what every CFC charity wants to know is, “What are our results?”
CFC charities receive this information in the April/May timeframe, first with their overall totals/results, and then the individual information from donors who have chosen to release their contact information.
Keep in mind that a CFC donor has the option of remaining anonymous, and I mean truly anonymous. No one in the CFC charity will receive any information at all about the anonymous donors. This is a very popular choice by CFC donors, and as many as 60% of your donors may be anonymous … and those are some of your best supporters!
CFC Donor Communication – Say Thank You Early & Often
For those donors who have released their contact information, it will include name, address, and e-mail, and the donor has the option of releasing the specific amount they have pledged to your non-profit, or they can choose to “Not Release” the amount which shows up on the CFC donor sheets as “$NR.”
The information will look like this:
CFC of the Regional Name
Jane M. Doe
1220 Main Street
Town, ST Zip
JaneDoe@mail.com
NR or $650 (which represents this donor giving $25 per pay period for 26 pay periods)
Now that you have that information, obviously the first thing you need to do is send your identified donors a “Thank You.”
It’s your choice as to whether you want to send the thank you via a postal service letter, or via e-mail. You should thank your CFC donor the same way that you thank your other donors, however you do that.
And, whatever donor tracking software you’re using, use it, and make sure to have a separate code for your CFC donors.
Thanking Your Anonymous Donors
Now that you thanked your known donors, it’s also time to update the workplace giving section of your website, and any/all of your publications — newsletters, etc. — to thank your anonymous donors.
Depending upon your level of satisfaction and/or comfort you can tell your supporters your specific results or you can keep it general and just say you were pleased with how well your non-profit did in the fall campaign. Share any highlights you have from your current year, and share any exciting news you have about upcoming events.
In both the “Thank You” letters and reports, it’s also time to plant the seeds about how you would like your donors to support you in this fall’s campaign, and let them know of whatever opportunities there might be for them to become more involved with your organization.
Since a donor will contribute more through payroll deduction than they will with a one-time gift, it’s always worth highlighting the value/desirability of giving through payroll deduction. And, while you cannot solicit a CFC donor directly, you can invite them to other non-fundraising events/activities your non-profit is having, i.e., an open house.
Within your organization, it’s time to start thinking about who on your staff is going to be involved in this fall’s campaign, and what their roles will be. We’ll take a look at that, in depth, in upcoming posts.
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
During his 25-year career in the Federal sector, Bill Huddleston, The CFC Coach, served in many CFC roles. If you want to participate in the Combined Federal Campaign, maximize your nonprofit’s CFC revenues, or just ask a few questions, contact …Bill Huddleston
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
If you’re reading this on-line and you would like to comment/expand on the above, or would just like to offer your thoughts on the subject of this posting, we encourage you to “Leave a Reply” at the bottom of this page, click on the feedback link at the top of the page, or send an email to the author of this posting. If you’ve received this posting as an email, click on the email link (above) to communicate with the author.
(Guest post from John Scherer, Co-Director of Scherer Leadership International. This is the sixth blog post in a six-part series about the history of Organization Development, “On the Shoulders of Giants.”)
NOTE: What I have learned about Kurt Lewin I received from four main sources. My mentor and NTL buddy, Ron Lippitt (one of Lewin’s first graduate students) regaled me with many personal stories about him. Marvin Weisbord, my long-time ODN colleague and friend (also steeped in the Lewin/Lippitt school), shared his research with me both in his marvelous book, Productive Workplaces, and in personal conversations. Jack Sherwood, another well-known and experienced Lewin/Lippitt consultant, taught me about action research and how to actually BE an OD consultant in ‘the Lewinian way’. Finally, Marrow’s thorough book on Lewin, The Practical Theorist, fills in the story about this amazing man, the Grandfather of applied behavioral science—and thereby of OD.
This may be my writing, but it is based on insights from these people. Like St. Paul said at one point, ‘I am only passing on that which I received. . .’
Can people change? This next OD ancestor of ours sure thought so. . .
Anyone who has ever heard or used words like ‘feedback’ or ‘action research’ or ‘group dynamics’ or ‘force field,’ has been impacted by Kurt Lewin. Known today as ‘the grandfather of applied behavioral science,’ Lewin, a Polish-born, Berlin-educated Jew majoring in Social Psychology, left Nazi-dominated Germany for the USA in 1933, saying, ‘I will not teach in a country where my daughter cannot be a student.’ This practical way of thinking about real world situations led him to create his revolutionary conceptual models for human behavior. As he was so fond of saying, ‘There is nothing so practical as a good theory.’ This is because a theory (from the Greek theorein, to see) allows one to see what is happening in new ways.
Kurt Lewin
Many of his new ways of seeing things were put to work in a single, well-documented change project that began in 1939. In response to an urgent request from the manager at Harwood Manufacturing Company in rural Virginia for help in raising production levels, John R.P. French (an external consultant from the University of Michigan and dyed-in-the-wool Lewianian) went to see what could be done. Working with an internal personnel manager, Lester Coch, they designed and carried out what was probably the first ‘action research process.’ Harwood, a new pajama-making facility, was losing money rapidly, with very high turnover and absenteeism, in spite of higher wages and greater benefits than workers were making elsewhere. Supervisors there had tried every carrot and stick motivation and reward system they knew, all with little or no effect.
When the consultants arrived, they initiated what was then a radically different process, one that you will recognize as standard practice for OD facilitators today. First they interviewed the plant manager, then the other managers and supervisors, then, in a strange move, they also met with a representative cross-section of front line employees. After observing the system in action for a while, they made recommendations to the management team. The gist of their proposal: begin an experiment with the front line people, to learn what might make a difference in their productivity. It is hard for us to understand how revolutionary this was in 1939! One can imagine some managers and supervisors thinking, ‘Oh, great. . . we’re going to let the inmates run the prison. . .’
In support of this process they also recommended:
That supervisors stop trying to raise production levels by addressing the work of individuals, and work instead on a system emphasizing and involving entire work teams, and
That management set production goals that are clearly attainable by workers (when they appear impossible, there is no sense of failure when they are not reached).
Engaging the Workforce ca 1939
When production increased slightly, French and Coch began to hold informal weekly meetings with a group of high-producing workers to discuss what difficulties they encountered and how they might be overcome. Management, having nothing to lose, agreed to consider trying whatever this group suggested.
After getting management’s permission, the high-performing group was invited to vote on what the production goal for individual workers should be. They raised the existing piecework targets from 75 to 87, a level never attained before, and said they would get there in five days—which they did, much to the astonishment of management. Meanwhile other individuals and groups in the plant doing the same work had no appreciable increase in productivity.
The Lewin-oriented consultants hypothesized that motivational initiatives alone are not sufficient to create lasting change. The missing link is provided by people makingdecisions that affect them. His conclusion: a simple process like decision-making, which takes only a few moments, is able to affect workers’ conduct for a long time. The making of a decision seems to have a ‘freezing’ effect, Lewin hypothesized, which is partly due to the individual’s tendency to ‘stick to his decisions’ and partly due to their wanting to be a part of ‘the commitment of the group.’
Force Field Analysis
The consultants then had the small group of involved workers plan their own hourly production rates by using ‘pacing cards.’ This group hit and maintained an amazing pace, going from 67 units prior to the experiment, to 82 and stabilizing there. The other groups stayed where they were. Why?
Force Field Analysis
Lewin had observed that the output of a worker was ‘quasi-stationary’ and existed, not in a vacuum, but in a constantly-shifting ‘field of forces,’ some helping and some hindering the desired change. Theoretically, changes in performance could be achieved by either a) strengthening a ‘driving’ force, or b) weakening a ‘restraining’ force. The increases created at Harwood, however, were not achieved by increasing driving forces, like more pressure to produce, or management-driven motivational methods, or even paying for performance, all of which had been tried and failed. This is because a top-down, driving-force approach creates its own back-lash of worker resistance, fatigue, anxiety and roller coaster productivity. The results at Harwood, the consultants believed, came from involving the people themselvesin discovering and then reducing selected restraining forces holding production back.
B = f(p x e)
One of Lewin’s most significant conceptual inputs into the OD process is this formula: individual behavior (B) is a function (f) of personal factors (p), multiplied by the impact of the current social environment (e). This model explains why some training-oriented OD efforts aimed at the individual often fail. Like the alcoholic treated alone and then sent back to an unchanged family system, OD efforts that do not take into account making changes in the (social) environment (or ‘the field’ in Gestalt terms) will not sustain themselves. This is because personal factors are multiplied by environmental factors. Ron Lippitt, one of Lewin’s first graduate students—and my mentor in OD—quoted this Lewin saying to me once, ‘I have found it easier to change the group than to change one individual in the group.’
The Housewives Experiment
Another important Lewin action research (read OD) project occurred during WW II with the U.S. Military, a result of Ron Lippitt and Ron’s colleague, Margaret Mead’s, connections with the U.S. Navy Department. The government was interested in finding out how to get housewives to use what were euphemistically called ‘variety meats’ (basically Spam), rather than prime cuts, since there was a meat shortage, and meat was needed for the soldiers overseas. In this action research project there were two groups made up of housewives. One heard presentations (lectures) on the nutritious value of variety meats and why they should try the recipes that were handed out. The second group, while they attended the same lectures on the topic, also attended a group discussion on the topic, where they could share their thoughts, concerns, reasons for resisting the idea, and discuss recipes.
At the end of the day, they were asked who would be willing to try some of the recipes based on variety meats instead of better cuts. Many of the women in both groups made a public commitment to trying the recipes. The follow-up research, however, found that the discussion method—which allowed people to voice their resistance—had actually lowered their resistance and been far more effective than the simple ‘telling’ approach in generating long-term change in the housewives’ attitude and behavior. Lewin’s notion of the field of forces and how to reduce resistance by surfacing and accepting it was validated again.
A Few of Lewin’s Change Principles
No action without research—no research without action.
Work with the group (the human environment), not just individuals.
Involve the people who need to change in the planning of the change initiative and the decision-making in that process.
My summary of Lewin’s gift to us: Finding out what is actually happening (research)—and why it is happening—and getting all that data ‘on the table’ where it is seen, discussed and decided about with those affected in a safe process, has the power to change people and larger systems (action).
A Personal Note:
Marvin Weisbord, a long-time friend and colleague, has done more research and writing on our OD ‘ancestors’ than anyone I know, and I am indebted to his marvelous book, Productive Workplaces, for much of what I have written here about both Lewin, Taylor and Trist. He has a way of making these OD pioneers and the early moments in our birthing process come alive, and often has a unique ‘twist’ on how we have seen someone like Lewin or Frederick Taylor, showing us another side of these giants in a way that, for me, makes them more human—and more real.
I learned most of what I know about the practice of OD from Ron Lippitt, Jack Sherwood, a student of Lippitt’s, and Herb Shepard, who—along with Dick Beckhard—actually named OD. Being fortunately so close to ‘The Ancient Ones’ has given me great motivation to ‘pass on that which I received’, and Carter’s blog series is one effort to see to it that as many people as possible know and practice some of the ‘original’ principles for helping change happen.
John Scherer is Co-Director of Scherer Leadership International, and Billie Alban is President of Alban & Williams, Ltd. This blog is an adaptation of their chapter in the ‘bible’ of the field of OD, Practicing Organization Development (3rd Edition, 2009, Rothwell, W.J., Stavros, J.M., Sullivan. R.L. and Sullivan, A. Editors). Many colleagues contributed, among them Warner Burke, John Adams, Saul Eisen, Edie Seashore, Denny Gallagher, Marvin Weisbord Juanita Brown and others. They have drawn heavily from Weisbord’s wonderfully rich, easy-to-read, and well-documented description of the origins of the field in Productive Workplaces (1987 and revised in 2012).
We Value Your Privacy We use cookies to better serve our customers through site functionality and user personalization.
We and our partners store and/or access information on a device, such as cookies and process personal data. This includes unique identifiers and standard information sent by a device for personalized ads and content, ad and content measurement, and audience insights.
With your permission, we and our partners may use precise geolocation data and identification through device scanning. You may click to consent to our processing as described above. Alternatively, you may click to refuse to consent or access more detailed information. You may also change your preferences before consenting.
Please note that some processing of your personal data may not require your consent, but you have a right to object to such processing. Your preferences will apply to this website only. You can change your preferences at any time by returning to this site or by visiting our privacy policy.
Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously.
I’m okay with functional and analytical cookies for website functionality. I agree to the use of cookies under these circumstances:
Will be used if you visit Managementhelp.org
Are necessary for the proper functioning of the website
Enable you to use the site securely
Do not collect personal information that’s not needed for personalization
Help us detect any bugs and improve our website
Collect anonymous information about your visits to our website
Are never used for remarketing
I’m okay with the functional and analytical cookies for marketing purposes and not for website functionality.
Are used to monitor the performance of marketing campaigns
Enable us to compare performance across our marketing campaigns
Are used for individual targeting
Can be used for retargeting on other partner platforms
Enable a more personalized experience
